Paid Leave Improve Whole Families Health and Financial Outcomes

Child Youth Serv Rev. 2020 Sep; 116: 105259.

Paid family leave and children health outcomes in OECD countries

Received 2020 Apr 18; Revised 2020 Jul 12; Accustomed 2020 Jul 14.

Supplementary Materials

Supplementary data ane

GUID: A64F6752-1F7B-4AC6-A5AB-D0A2D8EA03D0

Supplementary data 2

GUID: 21585DD0-5C0F-410D-A500-4824E655AF27

Abstract

During the by four decades, most OECD (Organization for Economical Co-performance and Development) countries have adopted or expanded paid family leave, which offers leave to workers post-obit the birth or adoption of a child as well as care for ill family unit members. While the effects of paid motherhood leave on child health accept been the subject field of a large body of research, picayune is known about fathers' leave-taking and the effects of paid paternity exit. This is a limitation, since virtually of the recent expansion in paid family go out in OECD countries has been to expand leave benefits to fathers. Mothers' and fathers' leave-taking may improve child health past decreasing postpartum low among mothers, improving maternal mental wellness, increasing the time spent with a kid, and increasing the likelihood of child medical checkup. The purpose of this paper is to examine the effects of paid family unit leave on the wellbeing of children, extending what we know about the effects of motherhood leave and establishing new evidence on paternity leave. The paper examines the effects of paid family unit exit expansions on land-level neonatal mortality rates, infant mortality rates, under-five mortality rates, and the measles immunization rates in 35 OECD countries, during the time menstruum of 1990 to 2016. Using an event study design, an approximately 1.9–five.two percent decrease in the baby, neonatal, and under-five bloodshed rates has been found following the adoption of paid maternity get out. Still, the beneficial impact is not as visible for extension of paid leave to fathers. The implications and potential reasons behind the larger protective effects of maternity go out over paternity leave on child wellness outcomes are discussed.

Keywords: Health, Infant, Motherhood, Bloodshed, Neonatal, OECD, Paid family leave, Paternity

one. Introduction

Many OECD countries, except for the United states of america, take adopted paid family unit leave and a large body of literature has examined the outcome of these leave policies on health outcomes for children. There is consensus that when workers exercise not take access to such exit they are less probable to accommodate the health needs of children, peculiarly newborns (Clemans-Cope et al., 2008). Neuroscience and developmental research consistently show that the first two years of life are critical periods during which stable, responsive, warm caregiving is key to children'due south social, emotional, and intellectual development; a lack of these relationships contributes to stress and has life-long implications for health and evolution (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000).

While the important role of caregivers during the neonatal period is clear, most enquiry has examined the impact of employment go out after nascence for mothers—with little to no work focusing on the impact of paid paternity exit on health outcomes of children. The bear on of paid paternity leave is not near as discussed every bit the touch of paid maternity leave. This may be attributed to the recency of the availability of paid paternity go out in several countries. To address this gap, this study examines the separate effects of paid maternity and paternity leave policies on the health outcomes of children in OECD countries during the period of 1990 to 2016. Since paid paternity exit has been adopted post-obit the implementation of paid maternity leave, at that place are no countries with only paternity leave. Thus, when this written report examines paid paternity exit, it is examining extensions to paid maternity exit. The health effect measures that the report examines include: the neonatal mortality rate, infant bloodshed rate, under-5 mortality rate, and the percentage of children receiving measles vaccination. The neonatal bloodshed rate is particularly important considering that 2.5 1000000 newborns died within the first month of life in 2018, according to the Earth Health Organization (2019). This accounts for 47 percent of all children deaths under the historic period of five, which is an increase of forty percent from 1990.

2. Groundwork

Paid family unit get out allows workers to take time off from work with full or partial wage replacement to engage in family caregiving (Lester, 2005). For workers who are unable to have time off for fiscal reasons, paid family get out makes it affordable to do so. More chiefly, paid leave helps retain female workers in the workforce, which is some other purpose of paid family get out. According to economic theory, when women are guaranteed pay during the fourth dimension they take leave and job protection, pregnant when employees are guaranteed to return to their same task, it increases the likelihood that they will be in the labor strength prior to having children. Likewise, it provides women the ability to programme for their future (Gupta et al., 2008, Summers, 1989, Sundström and Stafford, 1992).

Currently, 34 OECD countries offer paid family leave to parents. A detailed summary of the paid family exit programs in the OECD countries is shown in Table 1 . Among these countries, 28 guarantee at least fourteen weeks of paid family leave to mothers of infants. Coincidentally, 14 weeks of maternity benefits has also been recommended by the 2000 International Labor Organization'due south Maternity Protection Convention. The first 14 weeks is considered to exist of import considering during this time period, infants begin to form neural connections and recognize the voice, smell, and face of their caregiver (Schulte et al., 2017). For example, in Australia, all workers, including full-time and part-time workers, have a guaranteed eighteen weeks of paid parental go out at the federal minimum wage (Hewitt, Strazdins, & Martin, 2017). It should be noted that the United States offers 12 weeks of job-protected exit, but on an unpaid basis, for specified medical and family reasons through the Family Medical and Exit Human action of 1993 (FMLA). Employees can use get out during the birth, adoption, or fostering of a kid. Information technology tin too be used for serious wellness weather that make an employee unable to perform their job and, similarly, information technology tin be used to care for an employee's spouse, kid, or parent who has a serious health condition.

Tabular array ane

Paid family unit leave programs in OECD countries.

State	Yr Paid Maternity Leave Enacted	Maximum Length of Paid Maternity Leave as of 2018	Yr Paid Paternity Leave Enacted	Maximum Length of Paid Paternity Go out as of 2018
Australia	2011	eighteen weeks	2013	2 weeks
Austria	Before 1990	16 weeks	None	0 weeks
Belgium	Before 1990	xv weeks	Earlier 1990	2 weeks
Canada	Before 1990	16 weeks (varies across provinces, from 15 to 18 weeks)	None	0 weeks
Chile	Before 1990	18 weeks	2005	1 week (5 working days)
Czech Commonwealth	Before 1990	28 weeks	Later 2016	1 calendar week (vii calendar days)
Denmark	Earlier 1990	eighteen weeks	Earlier 1990	2 weeks
Estonia	2002	xx weeks	2002 (temporary suspended go out from 2009 to 2012)	two weeks (10 working days)
Finland	Before 1990	17.5 weeks (105 working days)	1991	three weeks
France	Before 1990	First or second kid: sixteen weeks; third or higher: 24 weeks.	2002	2 weeks
Germany	Earlier 1990	fourteen weeks	None	0 weeks
Greece	Before 1990	43 weeks (17 weeks basic maternity get out, and 26 weeks special motherhood leave)	2000	0.4 calendar week (2 days)
Hungary	Before 1990	24 weeks	2002	1 week (5 working days)
Iceland	Before 1990	thirteen weeks (iii months), embedded in parental leave scheme.	None	0 weeks
Israel	Before 1990	15 weeks	None	0 weeks
Ireland	Before 1990	26 weeks	After 2016	2 weeks
Italy	Before 1990	21.seven weeks	2013	0.8 week (four days)
Japan	Before 1990	xiv weeks	None	0 weeks
Korea	Before 1990	12.9 weeks	2008	i week (5 working days)
Latvia	1995	16 weeks	2004	i.4 weeks (10 calendar days)
Luxembourg	Before 1990	20 weeks	Earlier 1990	2 weeks
United mexican states	Before 1990	12 weeks	2012	1 week (5 working days)
Netherlands	Before 1990	16 weeks	2001	0.four calendar week (2 working days)
New Zealand	Earlier 1990	18 weeks	None	None
Norway	Before 1990	13 weeks	None	None
Poland	Before 1990	20 weeks	2010	2 weeks
Portugal	1995	six weeks	1995	v weeks
Slovak Commonwealth	1993	34 weeks	None	None
Slovenia	2001	15 weeks	2003	4.3 weeks (xxx calendar days)
Spain	Before 1990	sixteen weeks	Before 1990	4.3 weeks (thirty calendar days)
Sweden	1995	12.9 weeks	Earlier 1990	1.4 weeks (10 calendar days)
Switzerland	2005	14 weeks	None	None
Turkey	Before 1990	16 weeks	2015	1 week (five days)
Britain	Before 1990	39 weeks	2003	2 weeks
United States	None	No weeks	None	None

2.1. Mothers' usage of paid get out

The blazon of maternity leave coverage provided is correlated to the amount of time that a new female parent takes off from piece of work (Berger, Hill, & Waldfogel, 2005). When new mothers have access to paid leave, they are more than likely to spend time at dwelling with their newborns after giving birth (Rossin‐Slater, Ruhm, & Waldfogel, 2013). For example, Bakery, Gruber and Milligan (2008) analyzed maternity exit mandates in Canada, finding that mandatory get out entitlements increased the time that new mothers spent away from piece of work past more than than three months. Also, Baum and Ruhm (2016) used data from the 1997 cohort of the National Longitudinal Youth Survey to examine California's paid leave, finding that the usage of paid leave by mothers increased by iii weeks following the nascency of a child.

The literature also provides insights into the mechanisms through which additional time mothers spend with newborns yields wellness benefits. Paid leave may improve child health via an increased likelihood of breastfeeding. Research has establish breastfeeding to be associated with improved child and maternal health (Hamdan and Tamim, 2012, Ip et al., 2007, Lichtman-Sadot and Bell, 2017, Pac et al., 2019). Lichtman-Sadot and Bell (2017), who analyzed the longer-term effects of California's Paid Get out Program, found that paid parental leave increased the duration of breastfeeding from ii to twelve weeks afterward childbirth. Likewise, Pac et al. (2019) analyzed the effect of California's Paid Family Leave Plan and constitute that paid parental leave increased the overall duration of breastfeeding past almost 18 days. Studies accept demonstrated the medical benefits of breastfeeding on the health of mothers and children. Breastfed infants are less likely to develop asthma, ear infection, gastrointestinal infection, childhood obesity, and type 1 and type 2 diabetes (Ip et al., 2007). Similarly, breastfeeding mothers, compared to non-breastfeeding mothers, are less prone to postpartum depression (Hamdan & Tamim, 2012).

Paid family unit leave is also associated with regular medical checkups at infancy, reduced prenatal stress, and reduced not-parental intendance during infancy. Lichtman-Sadot and Bell (2017), in particular, found the improvement in wellness outcomes are driven by children from low socioeconomic households, suggesting that the paid family leave program had the greatest effect on mothers who could non afford to take unpaid leave. Conversely, when mothers are pressured to render to work early, information technology can decrease the likelihood that newborns receive the needed care. Berger and Waldfogel (2004) constitute that children whose mothers returned to piece of work inside 12 weeks were 7.five percentage points less likely to be breastfeed, ii.four percent points less probable to receive infant-care, and 3.4 per centum points less likely to receive all of the required immunizations.

Paid motherhood exit may too improve child wellness via an improvement in mental health of mothers, since paid maternity leave improves the quality of mothers' sleep, increases the frequency of children's medical checkups, and increases household income (Chatterji and Markowitz, 2012, Heymann et al., 2017, Stanczyk, 2019). Chatterji and Markowitz (2012) found that increasing the length of get out to over 12 weeks will reduce the maternal depressive symptoms on the CSED (Center for Epidemiologic Depression) scale past xv percent and the probability of being classified equally severely depressed by 2 percent. Likewise, equally Mandal (2018) found, the negative psychological furnishings of returning to piece of work early afterwards giving nativity was alleviated when women received paid maternity get out. Specifically, among women who returned to piece of work within 12 weeks of childbirth, those who had received some paid family unit leave had a lower CSED score, compared to those who did non receive whatever paid family get out.

two.2. Fathers' usage of paid leave

While we know a good bit about motherhood leave, we know less nigh paternity exit. We exercise know that fathers are somewhat less probable to take leave from their jobs just are more than likely to exercise so when the leave is paid. For example, Cools, Fiva, and Kirkebøen (2015) analyzed the adoption of paid paternity leave in Norway in 1993 and plant that the share of men taking paternity leave increased significantly, compared to the fourth dimension menstruation before adoption of the mandate. In fact, in 1993, the share of men taking paternity leave was 24.half-dozen percent and by 2006, it was 60 percent (Cools et al., 2015). Similarly, Marshall (2008) found that after Canada extended the Parental Benefits Program from 10 to 35 weeks in 2001, the proportion of fathers filing for parental leave benefits increased by approximately 10 per centum.

Some evidence from the literature is suggestive of mechanisms, also. Paid parental leave appears to increment the likelihood that fathers are involved with the care of their children. Tanaka and Waldfogel (2007), who examined paid parental exit in the United Kingdom, establish that fathers who took paid parental get out were xix percent more likely to feed their child as well equally 19 percent more probable to nourish their newborn at dark. When looking at Sweden'southward paternity leave program, Haas and Hwang (2008) also found a positive correlation between paternity leave and the participation of fathers in child care. Fathers who took more than days of leave were more probable to spend time with their child and participate in child care tasks (Haas & Hwang, 2008). The lengthened interaction that fathers have with their children has demonstrated to be beneficial. Such stiff interactions can have positive outcome on the cognitive and physical development of children (Allen & Daly, 2007). The infants of highly involved fathers, on boilerplate, are more cognitively developed at 6 months of historic period (Pedersen, Rubenstein, & Yarrow, 1979).

Similar paid maternity exit, paid paternity leave may besides meliorate the health of children via an improvement in the health of mothers. Persson and Rossin-Slater (2019), who examined Swedish households, constitute that increased paternity leave improves maternal mental health. Specifically, the study institute that in the start six months afterwards nascence, paid paternity leave is correlated with a xiv pct decrease in the likelihood of a mother having an inpatient or specialist outpatient visit for kid-birth related complications, a 26 percent decrease in the likelihood of a mother having anti-feet medication, and an 11 percent reduction in the likelihood of a mother having an antibody prescription drug. Bratberg and Naz (2009) found that Norway's paid paternity exit plan reduced the sick absence rate of mothers who had recently given birth. Tikotzky et al. (2015) besides found that greater paternal involvement, which may exist encouraged past paternity leave, is associated with greater maternal sleep at vi months afterwards birth.

2.three. Paid parental leave and kid health outcomes

Overall, at that place is good evidence that the increased time that both mothers and fathers have been afforded past paid parental go out has improved the health outcomes of children. One important indicator is the immunization rate of children. There is a general consensus that paid parental get out increases the likelihood of vaccination, since parents have more than time to take their children to the doctor. A study of 185 countries institute that a 10 per centum increase in the number of weeks of paid motherhood leave is associated with a 25.2 and 22.two per centum increase in measles and polio vaccinations, respectively (Daku, Raub, & Heymann, 2012).

Studies too indicate that paid parental go out reduces the bloodshed of infants, which may partially be a effect of immunizations. For instance, Winegarden and Bracy (1995) constitute that each week of paid maternity leave was associated with a decrease of approximately 0.v deaths per thousand live births in 16 OECD countries (Winegarden & Bracy, 1995). Similarly, Ruhm (2000), using annual aggregate information for sixteen European countries from 1969 to 1994, found that paid parental exit decreased the bloodshed of infants and young children. More than specifically, a 10-week increase in parental paid go out was correlated with a 3.3–3.v percent reduction in child mortality and a ii.5–three.4 pct reduction in infant mortality (Ruhm, 2000). Tanaka (2005) estimated that a 10-calendar week increase in paid parental leave would also reduce babe mortality by ii.6 percent.

3. Contribution

The previous literature on paid family unit go out provides evidence of benefits for child health, but much remains unclear. Starting time, information technology is unclear whether the effect of paid maternity leave policies on child wellness outcomes provide reasonable approximation of the furnishings of paternity leave policies also. Second, much of the piece of work on maternity get out examined reforms implemented in the 1980s. It is unclear whether the conclusions would change when taking into account more contempo years, specifically from 1990 to 2016. This time period is especially important, since this is the period when many OECD countries extended or expanded paid leave to fathers, as demonstrated by Fig. 1 . This reflects irresolute gender attitudes in that many countries began to understand the importance of the role fathers play in the development of a child. As in Fig. 2 , nigh countries had adopted paid maternity leave prior to 1990. Finally, studies such every bit Cools et al., 2015, Marshall, 2008 primarily analyzed the issue of paid family get out for a specific state. The results from ane state may non be applicable to some other state given differing economic and political structures. By conducting a cross-country assay with the utilize of recent information, which takes paid paternity leave into consideration, this study would fill up in a gap in the literature.

Adoption of paid paternity leave.

Source: OECD Family Database, 2019

Adoption of paid maternity leave.

Source: OECD Family unit Database, 2019

four. Hypothesis

When paid family go out is bachelor, it is expected that access to such leave has an impact on the health of children, considering paid family leave has been demonstrated to decrease postpartum depression amidst mothers, improve maternal mental health, and increase the rate of breastfeeding (Chatterji and Markowitz, 2012, Hamdan and Tamim, 2012, Lichtman-Sadot and Bell, 2017, Pac et al., 2019, Persson and Rossin-Slater, 2019). In particular, it is hypothesized that paid family unit get out decreases the neonatal and infant mortality, since research has found that the time that parents spend with their child during that period of a kid's life is of import for a kid'south cognitive, social, and emotional development (Bernal, 2008, Kavanaugh et al., 1997, Schulte et al., 2017).

Paid family unit leave can be argued to be lifesaving during infancy, since nearly 3500 infants die in their sleep every yr from adventitious suffocation or unknown causes, known equally sudden babe deaths or SIDs (Sole-Smith, 2016). Enquiry appears to propose that infants are improve off when they are taken intendance of by a parent rather than past a child care provider, since there is a correlation between infants placed in kid care and SIDs (Moon et al., 2000, Moon et al., 2005, Sole-Smith, 2016). Approximately i-3rd of SIDs-related deaths occur in the showtime week that an infant spends fourth dimension in child care, with one-half of the deaths occurring on the first solar day (Sole-Smith, 2016). Among infants who died of SIDs in kid care, 17.seven percent were cared past a licensed day care middle, 21.3 percentage were cared past a relative, and 54.iv percent were cared by a babysitter or homecare provider (Moon et al., 2005). The problem with babysitters or homecare providers is that many of these service providers are unlicensed and have non received instruction or training in handling infants. For example, day intendance providers are more probable to put babies on their tummy, since it can assist them to go to asleep faster (Moon et al., 2005). Yet, this is a dangerous practise, because information technology can increase the run a risk of SIDs. According to Alison Jacobson, the CEO of Starting time Candle, which is a nonprofit organization that raises awareness of SIDs, "the longer that a mom or dad can stay home with a baby, the improve." Thus, paid family unit get out tin can prevent infancy death, since it allows parents to care for their newborns with an all-encompassing amount of care, affection, and precision.

Additionally, information technology is expected that paid family leave decreases the nether-five mortality rate, since enquiry has shown that parents who accept paid family leave are more likely to take their child for a medical checkup, spend additional time with their child, and are more likely to have more than household resource that tin can be spent on the needs of the child (Heymann et al., 2017, Rossin-Slater et al., 2013, Stanczyk, 2019, Tanaka and Waldfogel, 2007). When a child receives a medical checkup, they are more likely to receive their scheduled vaccination. It is estimated that that 42,000 deaths are prevented every year among children who receive their recommended childhood vaccinations, according to the National Prevention Council (2011).

The hypotheses discussed above are summarized as follows:

H_i: Paid family exit decreases the neonatal and infant mortality.

H_two: Paid family exit decreases child (under-five) bloodshed.

The theoretical framework for this written report is shown in Fig. 3 .

Theoretical framework of the study.

five. Information Source

This study uses state-level panel data on 35 OECD countries from 1990 to 2016. The dataset is balanced, meaning the information uses the same number of countries for each year. The dataset was obtained from several publicly available sources, including the McGill Academy'due south PROSPERED projection, OECD Family Database, the Globe Banking company Group, and the U.South. Central Intelligence Agency. The unit of analysis is country-year. In total, there are 945 country-year observations.

The primary independent variables of involvement in this study are dummy variables measuring paid family go out. Paid maternity leave and paternity go out are distinguished, and have divide treatment indicators for country-years. Countries that never had paid motherhood/paternity leave during this time menstruation are coded every bit zero, whereas countries that always had paid maternity or paternity go out or later adopted such leave are coded as one.

To measure the health outcomes of children, the neonatal mortality rate, baby mortality rate, nether-five mortality rate, and the measles immunization rate are used as dependent variables in this report. These health outcomes are consistent with other studies (Daku et al., 2012, Winegarden and Bracy, 1995). The neonatal mortality rate is especially of import because more one third of all child deaths occur within the first month of life, according to the World Wellness Organization. The mortality charge per unit and the measles immunization rate are logged considering they have a positively skewed distribution, as shown in Fig. 4 .

Distribution of dependent variables.

Several annual country-level controls are included to account for state-level differences, which are found to impact the health of children. Specifically, the analysis controls for other wellness, socioeconomic, environmental, and infrastructure factors, including the prevalence of anemia among women and the labor force participation charge per unit of women. Each of these factors are arguably justified to exist included in the analysis. Outset, expenditure factors, such every bit health expenditure of countries (percent of Gross domestic product), the public spending on family benefits (percent of GDP), and the gross national income (current U.S. dollars) is controlled for in the assay, since they are constitute to be positively associated with the health outcomes of children (Ruhm, 2000). When countries invest more in the overall health of their citizens, there is an improvement in their health. Second, the prevalence of anemia among pregnant women has been controlled, since women who are in poor health weather are more likely to have birth-related issues. Third, environmental factors such as the amount of carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions and renewable electricity output were included in the analysis, since one.vii million deaths in children under-5 were attributable to the environment, co-ordinate to the Globe Health Organization. Pollution has been cited to be a major contributor to babyhood deaths, and thus, information technology is important to command for CO₂ emissions (Glinianaia et al., 2004). Finally, infrastructure factors, such as the, telephone subscription and the percent of individuals using internet, were also included since these can be considered critical modes of admission to information relating to children's health (Martínez-Fernández et al., 2015). Finally, population size is also controlled in the assay. Table 2 includes the summary statistics of the variables.

Tabular array two

Summary statistics.

	(1)	(2)	(iii)	(4)	(5)
Variables	Observations	Standard Deviation	Hateful	Minimum	Maximum
Paid Maternity Get out (Treatment)	945	0.309	0.893	0	1
Paid Paternity Get out (Handling)	945	0.481	0.361	0	ane
Length of Paid Maternity Exit (Weeks)	945	vii.921	14.921	0	43
Length of Paid Paternity Leave (Weeks)	945	0.937	0.546	0	4
Infant Mortality (Logged)	945	0.573	1.669	0.470	4.018
Neonatal Mortality (Logged)	945	0.559	ane.241	−0.105	3.487
Under five Bloodshed (Logged)	945	0.565	one.860	0.742	four.307
Measles Immunization (Logged)	931	0.101	four.509	three.761	four.595
Health Expenditure (% of Gross domestic product)	911	two.142	7.845	ii.448	17.21
Family Benefits Public Spending (% of Gdp)	899	1.023	1.919	0	4.454
GNI (current US dollars)	909	2.284e+12	9.722e+xi	5.472e+09	ane.905e+thirteen
Female Labor Forcefulness Participation Rate	945	4.443	43.84	26.05	50.63
Prevalence of Anemia Among Pregnant Women (%)	945	4.651	24.86	eleven.70	39.60
CO2 Emissions (kt)	862	906,283	346,033	1767	5.790e+06
Individuals Using the Net (% of the population)	920	33.67	42.x	0	98.24
Stock-still Telephone Subscription (per 100 people)	945	two.868e+07	ane.433e+07	130,472	1.925e+08

6. Methodology

To estimate the impact of paid family leave on child health outcomes, a two-manner fixed furnishings model has been used. As Goodman-Salary (2018) demonstrates, the coefficient of a two-manner fixed effects model is equal to the "weighted boilerplate of all possible simple difference-in-divergence that compares one group that changes handling status to another group that does not." The post-obit two-mode fixed furnishings model was estimated.

y c , t = Handling c , t - 2 + Treatment c , t - one + Handling c , t + Treatment c , t + 1 + Treatment c , t + 2 + β ii X c , t + τ c + ω c , t + Due east c , t

The indices, c and t are, respectively, country and year, and refer to the dummy variable, indicating whether country c has paid maternity go out or paid paternity leave in year t. The 2 lead variables, Treatment c , t - 2 + Treatment c , t - 1, respectively refer to two years and one year earlier the adoption of paid family leave in state c in year t. The two lagged variables, Treatment c , t + 1 + Treatment c , t + 2, respectively, refer to one year and two years afterwards the adoption of paid family leave in country c in year t. Furthermore, X ct is a set of control variables, such as health expenditure of countries (percent of GDP), public spending on family benefits (percent of Gross domestic product), gross national income (current U.S. dollars), life expectancy, prevalence of anemia among meaning women, labor force participation rate of women (percent of female person population, ages above 15), CO_two emissions (kt), fixed telephone subscription (per 100 people), the percent of individuals using cyberspace (pct of population), and population size.

Furthermore, τ c a n d ω c , t are country-fixed effects and country-specific fourth dimension trends, respectively. The benefit of controlling for country fixed effect is that information technology accounts for country-level characteristics that do not vary over time. However, the disadvantage of decision-making for land-fixed effects is it merely identifies countries that change over fourth dimension. Country-fixed furnishings exploit within-state variation, meaning the results are only applicative to countries that take changed their status over time in terms of their paid parental leave policies. In this report, there is inside-land variation since there are countries that initially did not have any paid parental leave policy, merely later adopted maternity and/or paternity exit. Specifically, 17 OECD countries adopted paid paternity go out during this period, as demonstrated in Fig. i, and seven OECD countries adopted maternity leave during this period, every bit demonstrated in Fig. 2.

The do good of controlling for country-specific time trends is that information technology controls for changes within a state over time that may be associated with the implementation of parental get out policies. For example, it may be that countries with singular growth rates in child health trends are more or less probable to implement paid parental leave policies. Country-specific time trends limit the threats to validity that are due to underlying wellness trends which may be contemporaneous with changes in leave policies. In contrast, mutual twelvemonth trend assumes that all countries experience a common tendency in a given year. The regressions with the common twelvemonth tendency can be found in Appendix A and Appendix B. However, it does not account for other changes within a country that may be driving the estimates down or upward, which could potentially bias the estimates.

Furthermore, E c , t is an fault term, assumed to be contained and identically distributed (i.i.d.). Observations are unweighted. A Breusch-Pagan examination finds no evidence of heteroscedasticity (Solon, Haider, & Wooldridge, 2013). Since there is no evidence of heteroscedasticity, the standard errors are not clustered by country in this analysis. Further, a land-level panel data has been used with no try to draw inference for a super population. Estimates are weighted when the touch on of treatment is heterogeneous. It is reasonable to expect that weighting would ensure that certain segments of the population are represented. All the same, as Solon et al. (2013) demonstrate, simply weighting the estimates by the population share of a particular attribute or characteristic will not yield the population averaged treatment result. Instead of weighting, Solon et al. (2013) suggest that a regression model should include dummies for each characteristic and a set of interaction terms with handling. Thus, in this study, rather than weighting by population size, information technology is controlled for in the model. Finally, the results have been clustered past country to minimize standard errors.

In an additional layer of analysis, this study as well examines the effect of the length of paid maternity and paternity leave on child health outcomes. This is of import to examine, since there is substantial variation in the length of exit across countries and over time. It is possible that longer leave is associated with ameliorate health outcomes.

7. Results

The results signal that after two years of the adoption of paid maternity get out, there is a statistically meaning decrease in neonatal mortality, infant mortality, and under-five mortality (Tabular array 3 ). Paid motherhood leave is associated with a 5.two percent decrease in the neonatal bloodshed rate, a 2.four percent subtract in the baby mortality rate, and 1.9 percent decrease in the nether-v mortality rate later on two years of adoption, when bookkeeping for country-specific time trends. Such effects are relatively large, when considering the size of the population existence affected. For example, a 2.4 percent decrease in the infant mortality charge per unit means the number of infants dying would drib from ten to 9.76 per thousand live births. These results are relatively similar to those found by Ruhm, 2000, Tanaka, 2005. Ruhm (2000) finds that a 10-week extension in paid family leave reduces babe mortality by ii.five percent. Tanaka (2005) also finds that a 10-week extension in job-protected paid leave decreases babe bloodshed by 2.6 percent. In this analysis, a similar tendency does non appear to hold truthful following the adoption of paid paternity leave, significant that in that location is a not a statistically meaning decrease in the child health outcomes (Table four ).

Table three

Paid motherhood go out.

	(1)	(2)	(three)	(four)
Variables	Neonatal Bloodshed	Baby Mortality	Under 5 Mortality	Measles Immunization
Lead Treatment (ii years)	−0.00278	0.0143	0.0108	0.0192
	(0.0301)	(0.0181)	(0.0185)	(0.0186)
Lead Treatment (one yr)	−0.00435	−0.0125	−0.0117	−0.00655
	(0.0159)	(0.0164)	(0.0153)	(0.00935)
Treatment Year	−0.0114	−0.0316*	−0.0295	−0.0171
	(0.0211)	(0.0173)	(0.0178)	(0.0261)
Lagged Treatment (one year)	−0.00752	−0.00917	−0.0116	0.0254
	(0.0119)	(0.0142)	(0.0132)	(0.0258)
Lagged Treatment (2 years)	−0.0516***	−0.0239**	−0.0188**	−0.00569
	(0.0169)	(0.00887)	(0.00916)	(0.0173)
GNI (current US dollars)	0	0**	0***	0
	(0)	(0)	(0)	(0)
Health Expenditure (% of GDP)	−0.0307**	−0.0253**	−0.0256***	0.00362
	(0.0117)	(0.00943)	(0.00875)	(0.00533)
Family Benefits Public Spending (% of GDP)	0.00990	0.00812	0.00888	0.00858
	(0.0114)	(0.00900)	(0.00865)	(0.00933)
Prevalence of Anemia Among Meaning Women (%)	0.0294***	0.0288***	0.0283***	−0.00453
	(0.00857)	(0.00625)	(0.00603)	(0.00576)
Female Labor Strength Participation Rate	0.00838	0.0125	0.0118	−0.00222
	(0.0114)	(0.0112)	(0.0108)	(0.00670)
CO2 Emissions (kt)	4.01e−07	i.75e−07	one.86e−07	1.86e−07
	(3.99e−07)	(ii.66e−07)	(two.54e−07)	(one.29e−07)
Stock-still Phone Subscription (per 100 people)	5.00e−09*	vii.21e−x	5.49e−10	−4.97e−10
	(2.63e−09)	(2.46e−09)	(2.25e−09)	(1.51e−09)
Individuals Using the Internet (% of the population)	−0.000733	0.000157	0.000143	0.000279
	(0.000512)	(0.000463)	(0.000454)	(0.000542)
Total Population	1.41e−08	5.63e−09	3.84e−09	−1.09e−08
	(1.71e−08)	(one.08e−08)	(1.11e−08)	(1.76e−08)
Abiding	25.32*	38.26***	40.06***	−i.784
	(13.91)	(ten.06)	(9.653)	(8.619)
Observations	723	723	723	722
R-squared	0.992	0.996	0.996	0.849
State Fixed Effects	Yep	YES	YES	YES
Yr Stock-still Effects	YES	Yeah	YES	Yes
State-Specific Fourth dimension Trends	Aye	YES	YES	Yep

Table 4

Paid paternity leave.

	(one)	(2)	(3)	(4)
Variables	Neonatal Mortality	Babe Mortality	Under v Mortality	Measles Immunization
Atomic number 82 Treatment (2 years)	−0.00470	0.000316	0.00454	−0.00590
	(0.0234)	(0.0154)	(0.0148)	(0.0150)
Lead Treatment (1 year)	0.00148	−0.00861	−0.00645	−0.00997
	(0.00609)	(0.00552)	(0.00534)	(0.00809)
Treatment Year	0.0123	0.00533	0.00166	−0.00442
	(0.0168)	(0.00963)	(0.00856)	(0.00768)
Lagged Treatment (1 year)	0.00323	−0.00588	−0.00132	−0.00744
	(0.00828)	(0.00496)	(0.00489)	(0.00869)
Lagged Handling (2 years)	−0.0211	−0.00707	−0.00803	0.00420
	(0.0262)	(0.0138)	(0.0141)	(0.0100)
GNI (current U.s.a. dollars)	0	0	0	0
	(0)	(0)	(0)	(0)
Wellness Expenditure (% of Gdp)	−0.0292**	−0.0243**	−0.0243**	0.00213
	(0.0123)	(0.00993)	(0.00925)	(0.00542)
Family Benefits Public Spending (% of Gdp)	0.0105	0.00860	0.00914	0.00943
	(0.0111)	(0.00898)	(0.00856)	(0.00920)
Prevalence of Anemia Among Pregnant Women (%)	0.0295***	0.0293***	0.0286***	−0.00385
	(0.00933)	(0.00685)	(0.00659)	(0.00567)
Female Labor Forcefulness Participation Rate	0.00713	0.0127	0.0123	−0.00214
	(0.00998)	(0.0108)	(0.0105)	(0.00638)
CO2 Emissions (kt)	3.48e−07	1.32e−07	1.39e−07	2.17e−07*
	(3.91e−07)	(two.60e−07)	(2.45e−07)	(1.25e−07)
Stock-still Phone Subscription (per 100 people)	5.05e−09*	9.95e−10	half dozen.92e−x	0
	(2.93e−09)	(two.61e−09)	(2.41e−09)	(1.56e−09)
Individuals Using the Internet (% of the population)	−0.000868	0.000108	eight.48e−05	0.000377
	(0.000564)	(0.000493)	(0.000488)	(0.000607)
Total Population	i.15e−08	five.73e−09	2.98e−09	−vi.39e−09
	(1.38e−08)	(i.03e−08)	(ane.05e−08)	(ane.51e−08)
Abiding	26.04**	forty.08***	41.96***	−1.614
	(11.seventy)	(9.382)	(viii.868)	(seven.996)
Observations	723	723	723	722
R-squared	0.992	0.996	0.996	0.850
Country Fixed Effects	YES	Aye	YES	Yep
Year Fixed Effects	YES	Yep	YES	Yeah
Land-Specific Time Trends	YES	Yeah	Aye	Yep

When examining the effect of the length of leave, the study finds that a one-week increment in paternity leave reduces the infant and under-five mortality (Table 6 ). All the same, longer length of paid maternity leave does not take a significant impact on kid health outcomes (Table 5).

Table 5

Length of paid maternity go out.

	(1)	(two)	(3)	(4)
Variables	Infant Mortality	Under 5 Mortality	Measles Immunization	Neonatal Bloodshed
Length of Paid Maternity Get out	−0.000302	−0.00133	−0.00127	−0.000518
	(0.00319)	(0.00200)	(0.00211)	(0.00143)
GNI (current US dollars)	−0	0	0*	0
	(0)	(0)	(0)	(0)
Wellness Expenditure (% of Gdp)	−0.0301**	−0.0243**	−0.0243**	0.00394
	(0.0117)	(0.00973)	(0.00909)	(0.00585)
Family Benefits Public Spending (% of Gdp)	0.0103	0.0106	0.0110	0.00810
	(0.0111)	(0.00916)	(0.00884)	(0.00948)
Prevalence of Anemia Among Significant Women (%)	0.0295***	0.0305***	0.0297***	−0.00455
	(0.00776)	(0.00560)	(0.00539)	(0.00509)
Female Labor Force Participation Rate	0.00927	0.0145	0.0131	−0.00110
	(0.0113)	(0.0109)	(0.0105)	(0.00764)
CO2 Emissions (kt)	two.69e−07	1.90e−07	1.89e−07	2.26e−07*
	(4.08e−07)	(2.88e−07)	(2.75e−07)	(1.33e−07)
Fixed Phone Subscription (per 100 people)	iv.87e−09*	half dozen.71e−x	four.00e−10	−7.09e−x
	(2.72e−09)	(ii.61e−09)	(2.39e−09)	(one.70e−09)
Individuals Using the Net (% of the population)	−0.000798	0.000176	0.000164	0.000406
	(0.000536)	(0.000455)	(0.000450)	(0.000497)
Full Population	1.94e−08	v.28e−09	3.33e−09	four.32e−10
	(ane.34e−08)	(9.61e−09)	(ix.08e−09)	(1.70e−08)
Constant	27.97**	twoscore.50***	41.93***	four.599
	(11.25)	(8.864)	(8.111)	(8.616)
Observations	764	764	764	761
R-squared	0.992	0.996	0.996	0.859
State Fixed Effects	Yeah	YES	YES	Yeah
Year Fixed Effects	YES	Yes	Yep	YES
Country-Specific Time Trends	Aye	YES	YES	YES

Table 6

Length of paid paternity exit.

	(1)	(2)	(three)	(4)
Variables	Infant Bloodshed	Under 5 Mortality	Measles Immunization	Neonatal Mortality
Length of Paid Paternity Leave	−0.0109	−0.00931*	−0.00808*	−0.00892
	(0.00994)	(0.00521)	(0.00476)	(0.00543)
GNI (current US dollars)	−0	0	0	0
	(0)	(0)	(0)	(0)
Health Expenditure (% of Gdp)	−0.0307**	−0.0247**	−0.0247**	0.00340
	(0.0119)	(0.00995)	(0.00930)	(0.00583)
Family Benefits Public Spending (% of Gdp)	0.0109	0.0104	0.0108	0.00841
	(0.0108)	(0.00889)	(0.00855)	(0.00951)
Prevalence of Anemia Among Pregnant Women (%)	0.0298***	0.0306***	0.0297***	−0.00433
	(0.00796)	(0.00570)	(0.00547)	(0.00517)
Female Labor Forcefulness Participation Rate	0.00993	0.0154	0.0139	−0.000441
	(0.0116)	(0.0111)	(0.0107)	(0.00738)
CO2 Emissions (kt)	ii.76e−07	ane.82e−07	one.81e−07	2.28e−07*
	(4.07e−07)	(2.79e−07)	(2.66e−07)	(one.35e−07)
Fixed Telephone Subscription (per 100 people)	five.17e−09*	9.50e−10	6.44e−10	−4.50e−x
	(ii.74e−09)	(2.62e−09)	(2.40e−09)	(1.71e−09)
Individuals Using the Internet (% of the population)	−0.000744	0.000182	0.000165	0.000441
	(0.000504)	(0.000448)	(0.000444)	(0.000506)
Full Population	2.23e−08*	7.44e−09	5.16e−09	2.78e−09
	(one.21e−08)	(9.85e−09)	(9.20e−09)	(1.70e−08)
Constant	29.42**	42.44***	43.69***	five.967
	(11.00)	(9.104)	(viii.378)	(viii.294)
Observations	764	764	764	761
R-squared	0.992	0.996	0.996	0.860
Country Stock-still Effects	YES	YES	Aye	Yep
Year Fixed Furnishings	Yes	YES	YES	YES
Country-Specific Fourth dimension Trends	YES	YES	Yep	Yes

The variables controlled in this written report also provide insight into the results. In all of the analyses (Tabular array 3, Table 4, Table five and Table 6), it was found that an increment in health expenditure is associated with a decrease in neonatal mortality, babe bloodshed, and under-v bloodshed. It was also found that an increase in the prevalence of anemia amid pregnant women is associated with an increase in these 3 child health outcomes (Table three, Table iv, Table 5, and Table half dozen).

viii. Discussion

As the results advise, paid maternity leave is correlated with a significant subtract in the neonatal, infant, and nether-five bloodshed rate, which was expected. This supports the first hypothesis and partially supports the second hypothesis of the study. Notwithstanding, the impacts of paid maternity leave on the mortality rates are non immediate. The effects are not seen until two years after the adoption of the leave policy. This may be as a result of roll-out delays or compliance lags. Governments need to increase the sensation of such go out to individuals who are eligible for the plan. Schuster et al. (2008), who examined the implementation of California's paid family unit get out program, corroborates the lack of awareness among individuals. This study found that within one year of the implementation of California's paid family exit program, parents with children of special health intendance needs who were receiving care at California hospitals were generally unaware of the program and rarely utilized information technology. Appelbaum and Milkman (2011) also found that there was a general lack of awareness of California's paid family leave plan. Based on the survey utilized in the written report, depression-wage workers, immigrants, and Latinos were the least likely to be enlightened of the plan (Appelbaum & Milkman, 2011).

In general, the impact of paid paternity get out was not as visible equally that of paid maternity go out. It is possible that it takes some years to notice a measurable affect of any policy, which is apparent here in the case of paid family leave. Paid maternity leave has been in identify in many countries for many years, but paid paternity leave is relatively new even in those countries that had paid maternity leave for many years. Paid maternity get out was bachelor in 27 of the 35 OECD countries even before 1990, which rose to 32 countries in 2004 and and then to 34 countries by 2016 (Fig. 2). In contrast, paid paternity leave was bachelor only in nine OECD countries before 1990 and incrementally rose to 22 in 2016. During the time menstruation of 2004 to 2016, countries with paid paternity leave increased from 15 to 22 (Fig. i). Thus, it is clear that it has taken quite some fourth dimension for paid paternity leave to be accepted and adopted and even after so many years its credence and adoption is not equally much every bit of paid maternity go out.

The magnitude of the do good available also has an impact on the beneficial outcomes. Equally Table 6 demonstrates, a one-week increase in the length of paid paternity get out reduces the infant and under-5 mortality. The reason that length of paid paternity leave has a significant consequence is that the length of paid paternity leave offered is much smaller than that of paid maternity leave. The average paid paternity leave available in the OECD countries is about 0.6 weeks compared to about fifteen weeks of paid motherhood leave (Tabular array 2). Thus, increasing paid paternity leave from one to ii weeks may accept a larger impact, compared to increasing paid maternity get out from 12 to 13 weeks. It is possible that at that place is an optimum level of paid maternity exit beyond which the gains in health outcomes of children are minimal.

The findings of this study propose that governments should also provide businesses the time to suit and comply with the regulation. Co-ordinate to a survey conducted past the Bipartisan Policy Centre of businesses with fifty or fewer employees, about half of minor business executives stated that it is somewhat or very difficult for their business when employees take exit. They stated that they need some support in providing paid family leave (Shaw, 2019). At the same time, governments should as well ensure that there is non a lack of compliance of the regulation. According to Armenia, Gerstel, and Wing (2013), information technology was estimated that at least 54.3 percent of the firms with 50 or more employees in the U.S. individual sector are compliant with the FMLA. Thus, it is likely that more people apply leave after a couple of years it goes into effect and the authorities strictly enforces the regulation. The delay may as well exist attributed to the country culture. There may be a social stigma attached to taking fourth dimension off, peculiarly for men. As studies have institute, the have-up charge per unit is not very high amongst fathers (Bartel et al., 2018). In Republic of iceland, Portugal, and Sweden, the take-up rate is approximately 45 percent (OECD, 2019). In some countries, such as Denmark and Finland, the take-up rate is every bit low as about 10 percent (OECD, 2019). This is despite many advocating that paid family go out is not only benign for the health of children, information technology is likewise beneficial for the health of parents.

When paid family go out is not bachelor, information technology can contribute to the social and economic costs to the family as well equally the lodge. When mothers render to work less than 12 weeks after giving birth, they are more likely to study stress and low (Dagher, McGovern, & Dowd, 2014). They experience difficulty in handling the demands of work and family life, and, as a result, many choose to go out their job. This can have a negative touch on on the productivity and turnover of the firm (Gault et al., 2014). When employers have to supercede employees, it can be costly and fourth dimension consuming. It is estimated that the average cost to replace an employee is approximately 21 percent of that employee's salary (Boushey, O'Leary, & Glynn, 2013).

Additionally, when parents practice not take access to paid family go out, it may exacerbate their concrete health weather condition (Jou et al., 2018, Peipins et al., 2012). Furthermore, co-workers are exposed to infectious diseases, causing them to have time off from work. Similarly, sick children may betrayal other children to infectious diseases at schools and day care centers. Employees with paid go out are more likely to receive preventive care, which tin help reduce health care costs in the long term (Bartick et al., 2017). According to Bartick et al. (2017), the United states of america could be saving $17.2 billions in costs associated with medical expenditures and premature births if mothers were able to exclusively breastfeed for six months. In general, when countries invest more in the wellness of individuals, information technology leads to a healthier workforce, which improves the productivity (Martin, Grant, & D'Agostino, 2012).

This study has some limitations. The information does not take information on the number or rate of people that utilize paid maternity leave and paid paternity get out in each state, rather information technology provides information on the availability of such leave. In other words, information technology estimates the intent-to-treat issue. It is possible that the treatment-on-the-treated consequence is stronger compared to the intent-to-treat effect. This is important, because admission to leave does not necessarily equate to the uptake of get out. For instance, in Sweden, well-nigh 80 percent of fathers and almost all mothers utilise parental exit (Marynissen et al., 2019). In contrast, in Belgium, Marynissen et al. (2019) found that only 5.viii percent of Belgian fathers used parental leave in the first two years following the birth of their first kid between 2001 and 2010.

The findings of this written report are beneficial in understanding the lagged bear upon of paid family leave, including motherhood and paternity exit, on the health outcomes of children. Compared to other studies, the timing of the effect of such get out is of particular significance. This study shows that it takes at least two years for paid family get out to have an effect on the health outcomes of children, indicating that there is a delayed impact afterwards the enactment of paid family leave legislation.

nine. Conclusions

The impact of paid family leave on the outcome of the health of children in 35 OECD countries has been examined. The study includes both motherhood leave, which has been in place for many years, and paternity leave, which is a relatively new extension of paid family leave. The health outcomes of children included in the report are neonatal mortality rates, infant mortality rates, under-v mortality rates, and the measles immunization rates. Data during the time menses of 1990 to 2016 was analyzed using a 2-style fixed furnishings model.

A significant decrease in the babe, neonatal, and under-5 mortality rates was found. Paid motherhood exit was associated with a 5.two percent subtract in the neonatal bloodshed rate, a two.iv percent subtract in the baby bloodshed rate, and 1.9 per centum decrease in the under-5 bloodshed rate afterward ii years of its adoption. However, the bear on of paid paternity leave was non equally visible as that of paid motherhood leave, which may be attributed to its recency and amount that is much smaller than that of the more common motherhood leave.

This study provides justification for a national paid family leave law in the Us, at the federal level, particularly in the light of the on-going Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic. In December 2019, Federal Employee Paid Leave Act was enacted, which covers federal employees. In March 2020, Families Starting time Coronavirus Response Act was enacted, which covers those affected by COVID-nineteen. These laws embrace sure groups and certain situations, and now the demand is for a police force that can serve the unabridged workforce.

Announcement of Competing Involvement

The author does non have any disharmonize of interest related to the submission and publication of this article.

This research was not funded past any external funding agency.

Footnotes

Appendix A. Supplementary cloth

The post-obit are the Supplementary information to this article:

References

• Allen Southward., Daly Thousand. Work & Well-Being, University of Guelph; 2007. The effects of father interest: An updated research summary of the evidence. Middle for Families. [Google Scholar]
• Appelbaum, E., & Milkman, R. (2011). Leaves that pay: Employer and worker experiences with paid family leave in California. UCLA Plant for Research on Labor and Employment.
• Armenia A., Gerstel N., Wing C. Workplace compliance with the law: The example of the family and medical leave act. Piece of work and Occupations. 2013;41(iii):277–304. [Google Scholar]
• Baker G., Gruber J., Milligan M. Universal child care, maternal labor supply, and family well-being. Periodical of Political Economy. 2008;116(4):709–745. [Google Scholar]
• Bratberg, E., & Naz, M. (2009). Does paternity go out bear upon mothers' sickness absence? Working Papers in Economics 06/09, Department of Economics, Academy of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.
• Bartel A.P., Rossin-Slater M., Ruhm C.J., Stearns J., Waldfogel J. Paid family leave, fathers' exit-taking, and get out-sharing in dual-earner households. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management. 2018;37(1):10–37. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Bartick 1000.C., Schwarz E.B., Green B.D., Jegier B.J., Reinhold A.G., Colaizy T.T., Stuebe A.K. Suboptimal breastfeeding in the United States: Maternal and pediatric health outcomes and costs. Maternal and Child Nutrition. 2017;13(1) [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Baum C.Fifty., Ruhm C.J. The furnishings of paid family unit leave in California on labor market outcomes. Periodical of Policy Analysis and Management. 2016;35(2):333–356. [Google Scholar]
• Berger L.M., Waldfogel J. Maternity leave and the employment of new mothers in the United States. Journal of Population Economics. 2004;17(2):331–349. [Google Scholar]
• Berger L.M., Loma J.L., Waldfogel J. Maternity leave, early maternal employment and child health and development in the US. The Economical Journal. 2005;115(501) [Google Scholar]
• Bernal R. The result of maternal employment and kid care on children's cognitive development. International Economic Review. 2008;49(4):1173–1209. [Google Scholar]
• Boushey, H., O'Leary, A., & Glynn, Due south. J. (2013). Our working nation in 2013: An updated national agenda for work and family unit policies. Center for American Progress, Washington DC.
• Chatterji P., Markowitz Due south. Family leave later on childbirth and the mental wellness of new mothers. Journal of Mental Wellness Policy and Economics. 2012;15(2):61–76. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Ip S., Chung Grand., Raman 1000., Chew P., Magula N., Trikalinos T., Lau J. U.South. Department of Health and Human Services; Rockville, Maryland: 2007. Breastfeeding and maternal and infant health outcomes in developed countries. Evidence/ Report/Technol Assessment 153, Report Prepared for the Agency for Health Care Research and Quality. [Google Scholar]
• Clemans-Cope L., Perry C.D., Kenney G.Thousand., Pelletier J.E., Pantell Chiliad.Due south. Access to and use of paid sick leave amongst low-income families with children. Pediatrics. 2008;122:e480–e486. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Cools S., Fiva J.H., Kirkebøen Fifty.J. Causal furnishings of paternity leave on children and parents. The Scandinavian Periodical of Economics. 2015;117(three):801–828. [Google Scholar]
• Dagher R.K., McGovern P.1000., Dowd B.E. Motherhood leave duration and postpartum mental and physical health: Implications for leave policies. Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Constabulary. 2014;39(ii):369–416. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Daku M., Raub A., Heymann J. Maternal leave policies and vaccination coverage: A global analysis. Social Scientific discipline & Medicine. 2012;74(two):120–124. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Gault B., Hartmann H., Hegewisch A., Milli J., Reichlin L. Institute for Women'south Policy Research; Washington DC: 2014. Paid parental leave in the United States: What the information tell united states nigh access, usage, and economic and health benefits. [Google Scholar]
• Glinianaia S.V., Rankin J., Bell R., Mulloli T.P., Howel D. Does particulate air pollution contribute to babe death? A systematic review. Environmental health perspectives. 2004;112(fourteen):1365–1370. [PMC costless article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Goodman-Salary A. National Bureau of Economic Research; Washington DC: 2018. Divergence-in-differences with variation in handling timing. Working Paper No. 25018. [Google Scholar]
• Gupta N., Smith N., Verner K. Child intendance and parental leave in the Nordic countries: A model to aspire to? Review of Economics of the Household. 2008;6:65–89. [Google Scholar]
• Haas L., Hwang C.P. The impact of taking parental exit on fathers' participation in childcare and relationships with children: Lessons from Sweden. Community, Work and Family. 2008;11(1):85–104. [Google Scholar]
• Hamdan A., Tamim H. The relationship between postpartum depression and breastfeeding. The International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine. 2012;43(3):243–259. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Heymann J., Sprague A.R., Nandi A., Earle A., Batra P., Schickedanz A.…Raub A. Paid parental exit and family wellbeing in the sustainable development era. Public Wellness Reviews. 2017;38(21) [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Hewitt B., Strazdins L., Martin B. The benefits of paid motherhood get out for mothers' mail-partum health and wellbeing: Evidence from an Australian evaluation. Social Science & Medicine. 2017;182:97–105. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Jou J., Kozhimannil Chiliad.B., Abraham J.Thousand., Blewett Fifty.A., McGovern P.Thou. Paid maternity leave in the Us: Associations with maternal and baby health. Maternal and Child Health Journal. 2018;22(ii):216–225. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Kavanaugh K., Meier P., Zimmermann B., Mead 50. The rewards outweigh the efforts: Breastfeeding outcomes for mothers of preterm infants. Journal of Human Lactation. 1997;thirteen(1):15–21. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Lester Chiliad. A defense of paid family get out. Harvard Journal of Constabulary and Gender. 2005;28(ane) [Google Scholar]
• Lichtman-Sadot S., Bell N.P. Kid wellness in elementary school following California'southward paid family unit get out programme. Journal of Policy Analysis and Direction. 2017;36(iv):790–827. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Mandal B. The event of paid leave on maternal mental health. Maternal and Child Health Journal. 2018;22(six):1470–1476. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Marshall, K. (2008). Fathers' use of paid parental leave. Perspectives, Statistics Canada.
• Martin G., Grant A., D'Agostino M. Global Wellness Funding and Economic Development. Global Health. 2012;viii:8. [PMC gratis article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Martínez-Fernández A., Lobos-Medina I., Díaz-Molina C.A., Chen-Cruz M.F., Prieto-Egido I. TulaSalud: An m-health system for maternal and infant mortality reduction in Guatemala. Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare. 2015;21(5):283–291. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Marynissen L., Mussino Eastward., Wood J., Duvander A.-Z. Fathers' Parental Get out Uptake in Belgium and Sweden: Self-Axiomatic or Subject field to Employment Characteristics? Social Sciences. 2019;8(11):312. [Google Scholar]
• Moon R.Y., Patel Yard.M., McDermott-Shaefer S.J. Sudden infant death syndrome in child care settings. Pediatrics. 2000;106(2):295–300. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Moon R.Y., Sprague B.M., Patel K.M. Stable prevalence but changing risk factors for sudden infant death syndrome in child care settings in 2001. Pediatrics. 2005;116(iv):972–977. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• National Prevention Quango, 2011. National prevention strategy. National Prevention Quango, U.S. Section of Health and Human Services, Office of the Surgeon General, Washington DC.
• OECD Family Database, 2019. PF2.1: Parental Go out Systems.
• Pac, J. East., Bartel, A. P., Ruhm, C. J., & Waldfogel, J. (2019). Paid family leave and breastfeeding: Evidence from California. Working Newspaper No. 25784. Washington DC: National Agency of Economical Research.
• Pedersen F.A., Rubenstein J.L., Yarrow L.J. Infant development in father-absent families. The Periodical of Genetic Psychology. 1979;135(ane):51–61. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Peipins Fifty.A., Soman A., Berkowitz Z., White M.C. The lack of paid sick leave as a barrier to cancer screening and medical intendance-seeking: Results from the National Health Interview Survey. BMC Public Health. 2012;12(520) [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Persson P., Rossin-Slater K. IZA Constitute of Labor Economics; Bonn, Germany: 2019. When Dad Can Stay Home: Fathers' Workplace Flexibility and Maternal Wellness. Discussion Newspaper No. 12386. [Google Scholar]
• Shonkoff J.P., Phillips D.A., editors. From neurons to neighborhoods: The scientific discipline of early childhood development. The National Academies Press; Washington DC: 2000. [Google Scholar]
• Rossin-Slater M., Ruhm C.J., Waldfogel J. The effects of California's paid family get out plan on mothers' leave-taking and subsequent labor market outcomes. Journal of Policy Assay and Management. 2013;32(ii):224–245. [PMC free commodity] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Ruhm C.J. Parental leave and child wellness. Journal of Health Economics. 2000;19(six):931–960. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Schulte B., Durana A., Stout B., Moyer J. New America; Washington, DC: 2017. Paid family leave: How much time is enough? [Google Scholar]
• Schuster M.A., Chung P.J., Elliott Chiliad.N., Garfield C.F., Vestal K.D., Klein D.J. Awareness and use of California's paid family leave insurance among parents of chronically ill children. JAMA. 2008;300(9):1047–1055. [PMC complimentary article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Shaw, T. (2019). Key takeaways from BPC'south survey of small business concern views on paid family leave. Bipartisan Policy Center, Washington DC.
• Sole-Smith V. 1 unassailable reason we demand paid family leave: It saves babies Lives. Slate Magazine. 2016 [Google Scholar]
• Solon One thousand., Haider S.J., Wooldridge J.M. What are we weighting for? Journal of Human Resources. 2015;50(2):301–316. [Google Scholar]
• Stanczyk A.B. Does paid family leave improve household economic security following a nascency? Testify from California. Social Service Review. 2019;93(ii):262–304. [Google Scholar]
• Summers L.H. Some simple economics of mandated benefits. The American Economic Review. 1989;79(2):177–183. [Google Scholar]
• Sundström Grand., Stafford F.P. Female labour forcefulness participation, fertility and public policy in Sweden. European Periodical of Population / Revue Européenne de Démographie. 1992;8(3):199–215. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Tanaka Southward. Parental leave and child health across OECD countries. The Economic Journal. 2005;115(501):F7–F28. [Google Scholar]
• Tanaka S., Waldfogel J. Effects of Parental exit and work hours on fathers' interest with their babies: Testify from the millennium cohort study. Community, Work and Family. 2007;10(4):409–426. [Google Scholar]
• Tikotzky Fifty., Sadeh A., Volkovich E., Manber R., Meiri Chiliad., Shahar G. VII. Baby slumber development from 3 to 6 months postpartum: Links with maternal slumber and paternal involvement. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Evolution. 2015;80(ane):107–124. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Winegarden C.R., Bracy P.M. Demographic consequences of maternal-leave programs in industrial countries: Evidence from fixed-effects models. Southern Economic Journal. 1995;61(4):1020–1035. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Earth Wellness Organization . World Health Organisation; Geneva, Switzerland: 2019. Newborns: Reducing mortality. [Google Scholar]

brittrown1982.blogspot.com

Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7367791/

Bagikan Artikel ini